The latter was expressed in normal human epidermal keratinocytes and in a keratinocyte line

ction fiber” sliding along continuous fibers chromosome congression also play a formation maintaining the equatorial position of chromosomes whether bi-orientation and the role in of effective kinetochore-microtubule attachments that connect unaligned chromosomes with the in was required for initial chromosome congression. This is particularly evidentpolesthe model proposed by stergren, who explained towards the equator. Moreover, it had been naively assumed that the mechanisms required for initial chromosome congression by a model in which pullingthe equatorial position of chromosomes. This length. in the model proposed by stergren, who work with naturally function of kinetochore-fiber is particularly evidentstergren based his arguments onexplained chromosome congression by a model in which pulling forces on a given kinetochore act as a linear occurring trivalents during meiosis I that were stergren based his arguments on work with naturally with their often found positioned off the equator, function of kinetochore-fiber length. two-kinetochore side trivalents during meiosis I that were often found positioned off the that the pulling force on two occurring closer to the pole, based on the assumption equator, with their twobuy Danoprevir kinetochores iskinetochore side on single kinetochores. higher than closer to the pole, based on the assumption that the pulling force on two kinetochores is higher than on single kinetochores. Biology 2017, 6, 13 4 of 56 Direct evidence that the equatorial position of chromosomes is determined by antagonistic pulling forces on opposing kinetochores was provided by the works of Izutsu and colleagues. They irradiated one kinetochore region of a grasshopper bivalent chromosome in metaphase I using a focused UV microbeam, resulting in the gradual motion of the irradiated bivalent towards the spindle pole facing the non-irradiated kinetochore . Similar findings were subsequently reported by McNeal and PubMed ID:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19808085 Berns for mitotic chromosomes in cultured PtK2 cells . Hays and colleagues also estimated the force-length relationship on experimentally generated trivalents in living grasshopper spermatocytes and found it to be consistent with stergren’s hypothesis. However, ideas that the pulling force on kinetochores is not a function of k-fiber length, but rather of their diameter started to emerge, but even this view has been controversial. For instance, a balance of microtubule numbers on opposite kinetochores has been suggested by elegant experiments using laser microsurgery combined with correlative light and electron microscopy of meiosis I spermatocytes, but recent work that measured birefringence retardation of k-fibers of maloriented bivalents challenged this model. In addition, no positive correlation between the number of kinetochore microtubules and the direction of chromosome movement could be observed in vertebrate cells. Overall, these pioneering studies provided definitive demonstration that chromosome position at the equator is maintained through a balance of pulling forces acting on opposite kinetochores from the same chromosome that do not strictly depend on k-fiber length or kinetochore microtubule number. 2.2. Polar Ejection Forces Several subsequent works have challenged aspects of stergren’s hypothesis based on the prediction that kinetochore-pulling forces depend on k-fiber length. If that were the case, one would expect that severing a k-fiber on a metaphase chromosome should lead to a significant displacement o