Ient azide-based nitrene precursors. In spite of the fact that azide-basedNIH-PA

Ient azide-based nitrene precursors. In spite of the fact that azide-basedNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptCurr Opin Chem Biol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2015 April 01.McIntosh et al.PageC-H amination reactions have been found to be markedly less efficient with iron-porphyrins (as compared to cobalt or ruthenium complexes) and require high temperatures and anhydrous conditions [39], we found that wild-type P450BM3 could catalyze low levels of intramolecular C-H amination to yield benzosultams [38 . As found for cyclopropanation, enzyme engineering could improve the enantioselectivity and activity of the new C-H amination enzymes. Indeed several of the mutations that increased cyclopropanation activity (at the active site threonine and axial cysteine) were found to strongly modulate C-H amination activity, leading to catalysts that were capable of catalyzing several hundred turnovers in vitro and roughly double that amount in vivo. Here again, mutation to the conserved axial cysteine was highly activating: its positive effect on C-H amination in vitro was even greater than observed for cyclopropanation. In another approach to P450-catalyzed C-N bond formation, Wang et al. have shown that engineered P450 enzymes can also catalyze carbene N-H insertions [40 . The reaction of ethyl diazoacetate with a diverse set of amine acceptors was found to proceed with high turnover numbers. Although many other C-N bond forming methodologies lead to product mixtures via FCCP web multiple nucleophilic additions, the enzyme-catalyzed N-H insertions gave only the desired secondary amines (Figure 3C). Of note is that free hemin produces a mixture of secondary and tertiary amines, which emphasizes the important role of the enzyme in BUdR cost regulating substrate access to the reactive center. An interesting aspect of these new reactions is that both cyclopropanation and C-H amination proceed well in whole cells. P450BM3-derived cyclopropanation catalysts, in particular, were more than six-fold faster when used in whole cells (on a per enzyme basis) and catalyzed more than 60,000 total turnovers under saturating substrate concentrations [37 ]. Thus the enzyme is as good as any transition metal catalyst reported to date. Although NADPH-driven heme reduction in vitro requires P450BM3’s reductase domain, in whole cells the reductase was not strictly necessary: even the isolated heme domain could catalyze over 1,000 total turnovers of styrene cyclopropanation. In the reducing environment of anaerobic whole cells, other electron donors apparently can facilitate reduction to the active ferrous state. For C-H amination the effect of carrying out reactions in whole cells was less profound (roughly two-fold higher activity), perhaps due to the higher levels of azide reduction (which competes with C-H amination) in whole cells than in vitro. A simplifying feature of enzyme-catalyzed carbene and nitrene transfers is the enzyme’s decreased dependence on the reductase domain for activity. For C-H amination and carbene transfers, although initial reduction to ferrous heme is necessary, after bond formation the heme is returned to the active ferrous state, thus eliminating the need for stoichiometric NADPH. Decreased dependence on the reductase may also prove to be problematic as it may lead to the generation of reactive carbon or nitrogen species in the absence of substrate, which for stronger electrophiles may lead to heme or protein dest.Ient azide-based nitrene precursors. In spite of the fact that azide-basedNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptCurr Opin Chem Biol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2015 April 01.McIntosh et al.PageC-H amination reactions have been found to be markedly less efficient with iron-porphyrins (as compared to cobalt or ruthenium complexes) and require high temperatures and anhydrous conditions [39], we found that wild-type P450BM3 could catalyze low levels of intramolecular C-H amination to yield benzosultams [38 . As found for cyclopropanation, enzyme engineering could improve the enantioselectivity and activity of the new C-H amination enzymes. Indeed several of the mutations that increased cyclopropanation activity (at the active site threonine and axial cysteine) were found to strongly modulate C-H amination activity, leading to catalysts that were capable of catalyzing several hundred turnovers in vitro and roughly double that amount in vivo. Here again, mutation to the conserved axial cysteine was highly activating: its positive effect on C-H amination in vitro was even greater than observed for cyclopropanation. In another approach to P450-catalyzed C-N bond formation, Wang et al. have shown that engineered P450 enzymes can also catalyze carbene N-H insertions [40 . The reaction of ethyl diazoacetate with a diverse set of amine acceptors was found to proceed with high turnover numbers. Although many other C-N bond forming methodologies lead to product mixtures via multiple nucleophilic additions, the enzyme-catalyzed N-H insertions gave only the desired secondary amines (Figure 3C). Of note is that free hemin produces a mixture of secondary and tertiary amines, which emphasizes the important role of the enzyme in regulating substrate access to the reactive center. An interesting aspect of these new reactions is that both cyclopropanation and C-H amination proceed well in whole cells. P450BM3-derived cyclopropanation catalysts, in particular, were more than six-fold faster when used in whole cells (on a per enzyme basis) and catalyzed more than 60,000 total turnovers under saturating substrate concentrations [37 ]. Thus the enzyme is as good as any transition metal catalyst reported to date. Although NADPH-driven heme reduction in vitro requires P450BM3’s reductase domain, in whole cells the reductase was not strictly necessary: even the isolated heme domain could catalyze over 1,000 total turnovers of styrene cyclopropanation. In the reducing environment of anaerobic whole cells, other electron donors apparently can facilitate reduction to the active ferrous state. For C-H amination the effect of carrying out reactions in whole cells was less profound (roughly two-fold higher activity), perhaps due to the higher levels of azide reduction (which competes with C-H amination) in whole cells than in vitro. A simplifying feature of enzyme-catalyzed carbene and nitrene transfers is the enzyme’s decreased dependence on the reductase domain for activity. For C-H amination and carbene transfers, although initial reduction to ferrous heme is necessary, after bond formation the heme is returned to the active ferrous state, thus eliminating the need for stoichiometric NADPH. Decreased dependence on the reductase may also prove to be problematic as it may lead to the generation of reactive carbon or nitrogen species in the absence of substrate, which for stronger electrophiles may lead to heme or protein dest.