Es in pulmonary function [33]. All these findings suggest that extended duration

Es in pulmonary function [33]. All these findings suggest that extended duration of obesity is required to elicit subsequent AHR. PD 168393 manufacturer airway inflammation is a critical factor contributing to AHR in the development of asthma [34]. In our study, more infiltrated inflammatory cells, especially macrophages as demonstrated by F4/80 immunohistochemistry, were observed in peri-bronchiolar areas and alveolar interstitium of neonatal overfeeding mice on P150; however, these changes were not found on P21. The same change was present in BALF cell counting, showing that total cells and classified cells (macrophages and lymphocytes) of BALF were significantly increased in neonatal overfeeding mice on P150. Though the classified cells of BALF in neonatal overfeeding mice on P21 were higher than their counterparts at the same period, the total cells of BALF were far fewer than those on P150. Therefore, our results suggest that neonatal overfeeding could induceNeonatal Overfeeding and Airway ResponsivenessFigure 5. Neonatal overfeeding induces lung inflammatory cytokines on P150. The levels of TNF-a in BALF supernatant (A) and serum (B) were measured by Enzyme-Linked Immunoassays. The mRNA levels of TNF-a (C) in lungs were measured by quantitative real-time PCR. Data were expressed as mean6 SEM, and the significant difference between two groups was analyzed by Student t-tests, *P,0.05. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047013.gmacrophage recruitment, and these activated alveolar macrophages may increase pulmonary disease susceptibility [35]. Macrophage recruitment in the lungs of obese subjects may subsequently result in lymphocyte accumulation [36]. It is the reason why the lymphocytes increased followed by macrophages. However, our results 1317923 were different from Lu’s reports [37], which MedChemExpress (-)-Calyculin A showed that db/db mice exhibited AHR but BALF inflammatory cells were not significantly different from lean mice after air exposure. After challenged with ovalbumin, inflammatory cells from ob/ob mice were increased in the lung tissue to greater extent than wide-type mice, but the extent of increase in BALF was still lower than wild-type mice [20,38]. One potential explanation for this disparity is the role of leptin, which could promote inflammatory cells in the lungs migrating into airway lumen (BALF). Ob/ob and db/db mice are genetically deficient in either leptin or leptin receptor, leading to the absence of anorexigenic and pro-inflammatory capacity of leptin [39]. In diet-induced obesity, as well as neonatal overfeeding mice, leptin is markedly increased [40,41]. Leptin is a pro-inflammatory cytokine and is able to stimulate other inflammatory cytokine production from macrophages [42] and thereby enhances lung inflammation. In our present study, we found that TNF-a level of serum and BALF were increased on P150. TNF-a is inflammatory cytokine predominantly released from macrophages, which implicated in the chronic inflammatory status of both obesity and 12926553 asthma [43]. Furthermore, exogenous administration of TNF-a was shown to enhance AHR [44], and TNFR2 signaling is required for the development of AHR in obese mice [45]. Taking together, thesestudies suggest that TNF-a released into the serum may circulate to the lungs and contribute to AHR. Long-term low-graded airway inflammation may lead to airway remodeling [10], and both of these states are related to macrophage activation and overproduction of TNF-a [46,47]. In our present study, obesity induced through neonatal overfeedi.Es in pulmonary function [33]. All these findings suggest that extended duration of obesity is required to elicit subsequent AHR. Airway inflammation is a critical factor contributing to AHR in the development of asthma [34]. In our study, more infiltrated inflammatory cells, especially macrophages as demonstrated by F4/80 immunohistochemistry, were observed in peri-bronchiolar areas and alveolar interstitium of neonatal overfeeding mice on P150; however, these changes were not found on P21. The same change was present in BALF cell counting, showing that total cells and classified cells (macrophages and lymphocytes) of BALF were significantly increased in neonatal overfeeding mice on P150. Though the classified cells of BALF in neonatal overfeeding mice on P21 were higher than their counterparts at the same period, the total cells of BALF were far fewer than those on P150. Therefore, our results suggest that neonatal overfeeding could induceNeonatal Overfeeding and Airway ResponsivenessFigure 5. Neonatal overfeeding induces lung inflammatory cytokines on P150. The levels of TNF-a in BALF supernatant (A) and serum (B) were measured by Enzyme-Linked Immunoassays. The mRNA levels of TNF-a (C) in lungs were measured by quantitative real-time PCR. Data were expressed as mean6 SEM, and the significant difference between two groups was analyzed by Student t-tests, *P,0.05. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047013.gmacrophage recruitment, and these activated alveolar macrophages may increase pulmonary disease susceptibility [35]. Macrophage recruitment in the lungs of obese subjects may subsequently result in lymphocyte accumulation [36]. It is the reason why the lymphocytes increased followed by macrophages. However, our results 1317923 were different from Lu’s reports [37], which showed that db/db mice exhibited AHR but BALF inflammatory cells were not significantly different from lean mice after air exposure. After challenged with ovalbumin, inflammatory cells from ob/ob mice were increased in the lung tissue to greater extent than wide-type mice, but the extent of increase in BALF was still lower than wild-type mice [20,38]. One potential explanation for this disparity is the role of leptin, which could promote inflammatory cells in the lungs migrating into airway lumen (BALF). Ob/ob and db/db mice are genetically deficient in either leptin or leptin receptor, leading to the absence of anorexigenic and pro-inflammatory capacity of leptin [39]. In diet-induced obesity, as well as neonatal overfeeding mice, leptin is markedly increased [40,41]. Leptin is a pro-inflammatory cytokine and is able to stimulate other inflammatory cytokine production from macrophages [42] and thereby enhances lung inflammation. In our present study, we found that TNF-a level of serum and BALF were increased on P150. TNF-a is inflammatory cytokine predominantly released from macrophages, which implicated in the chronic inflammatory status of both obesity and 12926553 asthma [43]. Furthermore, exogenous administration of TNF-a was shown to enhance AHR [44], and TNFR2 signaling is required for the development of AHR in obese mice [45]. Taking together, thesestudies suggest that TNF-a released into the serum may circulate to the lungs and contribute to AHR. Long-term low-graded airway inflammation may lead to airway remodeling [10], and both of these states are related to macrophage activation and overproduction of TNF-a [46,47]. In our present study, obesity induced through neonatal overfeedi.