As the small clots consume coagulation proteins and platelets, normal coagulation is disrupted; normal blood flow to organs is disrupted and this can lead to abnormal bleeding

A Novel Method to Evaluate CMA in a Single Neuron these results indicate that the lysosomal translocation of GAPDHHT is mainly mediated by CMA and not by macroautophagy. We therefore consider the observation of GAPDH-HT lysosomal translocation a novel and valid method to evaluate CMA activity at a single cell level. Single-cell monitoring of CMA activity in primary cultured TSU68 site cerebellar Purkinje cells To investigate whether CMA activity could be assessed in primary cultured neurons by the lysosomal-translocation method, we expressed GAPDH-HT selectively in primary cultured cerebellar Purkinje cells using adenoviral vectors . Similar to HeLa cells, TMR-labeled GAPDH-HT was uniformly distributed throughout PC somata and dendrites immediately after labeling with the TMR-HT ligand. In contrast, most PCs had many cytoplasmic dots of GAPDH-HT 24 h after labeling, with dots being especially abundant in PC somata. These dots also colocalized with LysoTracker and LAMP2 immunoreactivity. In contrast to the results in HeLa cells, cytoplasmic dots were observed in almost all PC somata. Therefore, we quantitatively assessed CMA activity by counting the number of dots per PC soma. The number of GAPDH-HT dots in PC February 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 2 | e31232 A Novel Method to Evaluate CMA in a Single Neuron somata was significantly increased by the CMA activating stimuli, 100 mM H2O2, 10 mM MPA and 1 mM 6-aminonicotinamide, which is also reported to activate CMA . Furthermore, we attempted to investigate whether siRNAmediated knockdown of LAMP2A inhibits lysosomal translocation of GAPDH-HT in primary cultured neurons, as seen in HeLa cells. For this purpose, we used cortical neurons, instead of Purkinje cells, because it was difficult to knockdown LAMP2A in a Purkinje cell-specific manner. ” We confirmed that knockdown of LAMP2A significantly inhibited lysosomal translocation of GAPDH-HT in primary rat cortical neurons. These results suggest that the lysosomal-translocation method can be used to evaluate CMA activity in primary cultured neurons. SCA14 mutant cPKC impairs CMA in HeLa cells and primary cultured PCs Using an HT pull-down assay, we identified Hsc70 17062696” as a preferred binding protein for the SCA14 mutant cPKC in February 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 2 | e31232 A Novel Method to Evaluate CMA in a Single Neuron primary cultured PCs. This interaction was confirmed by HT pull-down assay in cultured cell line. Furthermore, 2-color fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and raster image correlation spectroscopy analyses revealed that mutant cPKC-GFP interacted with TMR-labeled Hsc70-HT, thereby reducing the mobility of Hsc70-HT in living PCs. As Hsc70 is involved in CMA, it is possible that mutant cPKC affects CMA activity in PCs. To explore this possibility, we evaluated lysosomal translocation of GAPDH-HT in PC somata coexpressing wild type or mutant cPKC-GFP without aggregation of the mutant protein. Whereas WT cPKC-GFP did not affect lysosomal translocation of GAPDH-HT compared with cells expressing GFP alone, mutant cPKC-GFP significantly decreased the number of GAPDH-HT dots in PC somata. Similar results were obtained using HeLa cells coexpressing cPKC-GFP and GAPDH-HT. Furthermore, expression of mutant cPKC-GFP significantly increased the amount of another CMA substrate, myocyte enhancer factor 2D . In addition, oxidative stress failed to increase the number of GAPDH-HT dots in PC somata expressing mutant cPKC-GFP but did significantly increase GA